Influence of mung bean protein isolate concentration and pH on gel formation and physicochemicalproperties of mung bean protein–gellan gum composites
Main Article Content
Keywords
Hydrocolloid; Coacervation; Alternative Proteins; Mung bean protein; Gellan gum
Abstract
This study examined the effects of mung bean protein isolate concentration and pH on gel formation and
physicochemical properties of mung bean protein isolate–low-acyl gellan gum (MB-GG) composite systems for structured plant-based food applications. Composite gels were prepared using mung bean protein isolate concentrations of 25%, 50%, and 75% (w/w) under pH 5, 6, and 7 and evaluated for key physicochemical, structural, and rheological properties. Both mung bean protein isolate concentration and pH significantly influenced gel structure and functionality. Gels formed at pH 5 exhibited stronger intermolecular associations but more heterogeneous structures, potentially because of enhanced protein aggregation near the isoelectric region, whereas increasing pH improved gel uniformity and lightness while reducing water holding capacity. Although gels containing 25% mung bean protein isolate produced the strongest gel network, the 50% formulation at pH 6 provided the most balanced combination of structural stability, water retention, and textural performance. Overall, these findings demonstrate that balanced protein–gellan gum interactions, rather than protein enrichment alone, govern MB-GG gel functionality, and this interaction-driven framework may also guide formulation design in other plant protein–hydrocolloid systems for structured food applications
References
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Siaghi, M., Nazemi, Z., Janmohammadi, M. and Radmanesh, F. 2026. Effect of Tragacanth gum on physical and mechanical properties of fish collagen sponge for hemostatic dressing applications. Carbohydrate Polymer Technologies and Applications 13: 101095. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carpta.2026.101095
Sim, H., Jin, S.M., Kim, J.H., Lee, C. and Yu, D. 2025. Influence of plant-based gel binders and Song-Hwa mushroom crosslinking on functional properties and consumer perception of vegan mushroom sausage analogues. Food Chemistry 481: 143806. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2025.143806
Sonklin, C., Saengsuk, N., Wiyaporn, P., Yodlum, P. and Phumsombat, P. 2026. Effect of hydroxypropyl methylcellulose on physicochemical characteristics of high protein jasmine rice coated with rice protein isolate. Food Science and Technology (LWT) 246: Ar. 119297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2026.119297
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Akpo, E., Colin, C., Perrin, A., Cambedouzou, J. and Cornu, D. 2024. Encapsulation of active substances in natural polymer coatings. Materials 17(11): 2774. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17112774
Alavi, F., Emam-Djomeh, Z. Yarmand, M.S., Salami, M., Salamia, M., Momena, S. and Moosavi-Movahedic, A.A. 2018. Cold gelation of curcumin loaded whey protein aggregates mixed with k-carrageenan: impact of gel microstructure on the gastrointestinal fate of curcumin. Food Hydrocolloids 85: 267–280. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2018.07.012
Babaei, J., Khodaiyan, F. and Mohammadian, M. 2019. Effects of enriching with gellan gum on the structural, functional, and degradation properties of egg white heat-induced hydrogels. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 128: 94–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2019.01.116
Badjona, A., Bradshaw, R., Millman, C., Howarth, M. and Dubey, B. 2024. Optimization of ultrasound-assisted extraction of faba bean protein isolate: structural, functional, and thermal properties. Part 2/2. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 110: 107030. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ultsonch.2024.107030
Bhattarai, S., Katekhong, W., Tan, C., Klinkesorn, U. and Peanparkdee, M. 2025. Development of red rice germ extract-loaded microcapsules by complex coacervation using alternative proteins and polysaccharide as wall materials. Journal of Food Engineering 402: 112698. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2025.112698
Binsi, P.K., Nayak, N., Sarkar, P.C., Joshy, C.G., Ninan, G. and Ravishankar, C.N. 2017. Gelation and thermal characteristics of microwave extracted fish gelatin–natural gum composite gels. Journal of Food Science and Technology 54(2): 518–530. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-017-2496-9
Chassenieux, C. and Nicolai, T. 2024. Mechanical properties and microstructure of (Emul) gels formed by mixtures of proteins and polysaccharides. Current Opinion in Colloid & Interface Science 70: 101781. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cocis.2023.101781
Dakhili, S., Yekta, R., Bayanati, M., Sanej, K.D., Mohammadifar, M.A., Nayebzadeh, K. and Shojaee-Aliabadi S. 2026 Optimized complex coacervation and tailored cross-linking of faba protein–xanthan gum complexes for enhanced structural stability and emulsifying performance [In Eng]. Food Chemistry 500: 147537. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2025.147537
Demircan, E., Aydar, E.F., Mertdinc Mertdinç, Z., Kasapoglu Kasapoğlu, K.N. and Ozcelik Özçelik B. 2023. 3D printable vegan plant-based meat analogue: fortification with three different mushrooms, investigation of printability, and characterization. Food Research International 173(1): 113259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2023.113259
Gentile, L. 2020. Protein–polysaccharide interactions and aggregates in food formulations. Current Opinion in Colloid & Interface Science 48: 18–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cocis.2020.03.002
Ghorbani, A., Rafe, A., Hesarinejad, M.A. and Lorenzo, J.M. 2025. Effect of pH and protein to polysaccharide ratio on coacervation of sesame protein isolate-Tragacanth gum: structure-rheology function. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 311: 143911. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2025.143911
Ha Sim, J., Moon, S., Kim, J.H., Lee, C. and Yu, D. 2025. Influence of plant-based gel binders and Song- Hwa mushroom crosslinking on functional properties and consumer perception of vegan mushroom sausage analogues. Food Chemistry 481: 143806. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.foodchem.2025.143806
Hu, X., Ju, Q., Koo, C. and McClements, D. 2024. Influence of complex coacervation on the structure and texture of plant-based protein-polysaccharide composites. Food Hydrocolloids 147: 109333. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2023.109333
Huang, Z., Yang, X., Liang, S., Chen, L., Dong, L., Rahaman, A., He, S., Shen, Y. and Su, D. 2022. Polysaccharides improved the viscoelasticity, microstructure, and physical stability of oval¬bumin-ferulic acid complex stabilized emulsion. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 211: 150–158. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2022.05.078
Kamer, D.D.A., Gumus, T., Palabiyik, I., Demirci, A.S. and Oksuz, O. 2022. The fermentation-based production of gel¬lan from rice bran and the evaluation of various qualita¬tive properties of gum. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 207: 841–849. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. ijbiomac.2022.03.168
Li, S., Luo, M., Hu, X., Yan, W., Ryu, J. and McClements, D.J. 2025. Creation of novel animal protein substitutes with potato protein and gellan gum: control of food texture, color, and shape. Food Hydrocolloids 158: 110510. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2024.110510
Liu, L., Zhang, D., Xiaoxiao, S., Guo, M., Wang, Z., Geng, F., Zhou, X. and Nie, S. 2022 Compound hydrogels derived from gelatin and gellan gum regulates the release of anthocyanins in simulated digestion. Food Hydrocolloids 127: 107487. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2022.107487
Liu, Y., Liu, Y., Zhong, M., Tuly, J.A., Dong, W., Ren, X. and Ma, H. 2025. Protein–polysaccharide complexes for O/W emulsions: structural engineering and their relevance to food stability and safety. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 24(5): e70289. https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.70289
Malkin, A.Y. and Derkach, S.R. 2024. Gelation of polymer solutions as a rheological phenomenon (mechanisms and kinetics). Current Opinion in Colloid & Interface Science 73: 101844. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cocis.2024.101844
Malkin, A.Y., Derkach, S.R. and Kulichikhin, V.G. 2023. Rheology of gels and yielding liquids. Gels 9(9): 715. https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9090715
Moghadam, A., Ghorbani-Hasan Saraei, A., Rafe, A., Fazeli, F. and Shahidi, S.-A. 2025. Improving the functional properties of canola protein isolate through electrostatic coacervation with soluble fraction of Tragacanth gum. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 330(2): 148103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2025.148103
Namkieat, P., Borompichaichartkul, C., Ayuni, D., Sapwarobol, S.S. and Phumsombat P. 2025. Tapioca-resistant maltodextrin enhances probiotic survival more effectively than commercial prebiotics under simulated gastrointestinal conditions. Food Bioscience 17: 107358. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbio.2025.107358
Ozorio, L., Corradi, A.P. and Perrechil, F. 2024. Pea and rice proteins with gellan gum and monovalent salts for the development of plant-based gels for food applications. Applied Food Research 4(2): 100601. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.afres.2024.100601
Palumbo, F.S., Federico, S., Pitarresi, G., Fiorica, C. and Giammona, G. 2020. Gellan gum-based delivery systems of therapeutic agents and cells. Carbohydrate Polymers 229: 115430. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2019.115430
Phumsombat, P., Saengsuk, N., Laohakunjit, N., Selamassakul, O., Sonklin, C. and Srinuan, P. 2025. Influence of cooking methods on physicochemical characteristics and in vitro protein digestibility of restructured pork steak hydrolyzed by bromelain and reformed by κ-carrageenan. Applied Food Research 5(1): 101019. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.afres.2025.101019
Phumsombat, P., Trisakwattana, K., Ittithanaput, N., Viwatanawatanakarn, N. and Borompichaichartkul, C. 2024. Synbiotic and protein-enriched low-fat Sao Hai rice ice cream. Quality Assurance and Safety of Crops & Foods 16(SP1): 14–27. https://doi.org/10.15586/qas.v16iSP1.1453
Pomsang, P., Phumsombat, P. and Borompichaichartkul, C. 2024. Characterisation of chicken breast and soy proteins glycated with konjac glucomannan hydrolysate. International Journal of Food Science and Technology 59(11): 8917–8925. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijfs.17531
Ryu, J. and McClements, D. 2023. Control of plant-based biopolymer composite gel texture: combining potato proteins with different high acyl-low acyl gellan gum ratios. Food Hydrocolloids 149: 109636. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2023.109636
Saengsuk, N., Barbut, S. and Laohakunjit, N. 2023. Texture modification of easily chewable pork meat batter for masticatory dysfunction people: effects and interactions of bromelain, κ‐carrageenan, and plant protein hydrolysates. International Journal of Food Science & Technology 59: 197–207. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijfs.16794
Saengsuk, N., Laohakunjit, N., Sanporkha, P., Kaisangsri, N., Selamassakul, O., Ratanakhanokchai, K. and Uthairatanakij, A. 2021 Physicochemical characteristics and textural parameters of restructured pork steaks hydrolysed with bromelain. Food Chemistry 361: 130079. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.130079
Saengsuk, N., Laohakunjit, N., Sanporkha, P., Kaisangsri, N., Selamassakul, O., Ratanakhanokchai, K., Uthairatanakij, A. and Waeonukul, R. 2022. Comparative physicochemical characteristics and in vitro protein digestibility of alginate/calcium salt restructured pork steak hydrolyzed with bromelain and addition of various hydrocolloids (low acyl gellan, low methoxy pectin and κ-carrageenan). Food Chemistry 393: 133315. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2022.133315
Salminen, H., Sachs, M., Schmitt, C. and Weiss, J. 2022. Complex coacervation and precipitation between soluble pea proteins and apple pectin. Food Biophysics 17(3): 460–471. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11483-022-09726-x
Sha, L. and Xiong, Y.L. 2020. Plant protein-based alternatives of reconstructed meat: science, technology, and challenges. Trends in Food Science & Technology 102: 51–61. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.tifs.2020.05.022
Siaghi, M., Nazemi, Z., Janmohammadi, M. and Radmanesh, F. 2026. Effect of Tragacanth gum on physical and mechanical properties of fish collagen sponge for hemostatic dressing applications. Carbohydrate Polymer Technologies and Applications 13: 101095. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carpta.2026.101095
Sim, H., Jin, S.M., Kim, J.H., Lee, C. and Yu, D. 2025. Influence of plant-based gel binders and Song-Hwa mushroom crosslinking on functional properties and consumer perception of vegan mushroom sausage analogues. Food Chemistry 481: 143806. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2025.143806
Sonklin, C., Saengsuk, N., Wiyaporn, P., Yodlum, P. and Phumsombat, P. 2026. Effect of hydroxypropyl methylcellulose on physicochemical characteristics of high protein jasmine rice coated with rice protein isolate. Food Science and Technology (LWT) 246: Ar. 119297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2026.119297
Su, C-y., Li, D. and Wang, L-j. 2025. From micropores to mechanical strength: fabrication and characterization of edible corn starch-sodium alginate double network hydrogels with Ca2+ cross-linking. Food Chemistry 467: 142276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2024.142276
Sun, W., Lu, Q., Chen, J., Fan, X., Zhan, S., Yang, W., Huang, T. and Li, F. 2025. Influences of pH on gelling and digestion-fermentation properties of fish gelatin-polysaccharide hydrogels. Foods 14(15): 2631. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14152631
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